Glossary | Philosophy Aid

***UNDER CONSTRUCTION***

(Note: Much better definitions and analyses of these terms can be found on resources like Wikipedia or The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy; the intent of this glossary is convenience—to give readers a concise, basic account in a single place, so they can reference a term quickly, get the gist of it, and keep reading. One should not consider these definitions to be exhaustive, or to necessarily represent an expert consensus on the topic/term. This is an evolving document and some sections are currently under construction.)

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z

Absurd (in the philosophical sense) or absurdism (see below) – broadly, the absurd references the condition in which humanity (and other rational beings) finds itself – one in which we desire meaning for our existence, but none can be found. Used as an adjective, in the philosophical sense, the term absurd describes a thing or a state which reflects this meaninglessness. Philosophers have proposed a few solutions to this problem. One proposal is to make a “leap of faith” and believe in religious concepts like the existence of a personal creator god that has pre-assigned a meaning for one’s existence (despite the fact that we have no evidence to support such beliefs; see Kierkegaard). Another solution — proposed by the existentialist tendency of atheistic existentialism — is to create one’s own meaning for their existence; by creating our own meaning for our lives we subvert the existentially nihilistic condition of our existence. Absurdism, a school of thought closely related to existentialism, asserts that meaning is an impossibility — we must accept the meaninglessness of our existence but persevere despite this.

Abduction or abductive logic / reasoning — see https://philosophyaid.com/critical-thinking/

Ad hoc — means “for this” in Latin; in popular usage, something is referred to as being ad hoc if it is being utilized for a specific purpose, as needed, with the implication that this utilization is not permanent or generalizable to other purposes. This term is often used in reference to committees that are created for a specific purpose, but which will be dissolved when they are no longer needed and which do not have powers or a purpose outside of the specific niche or purpose they were created for. “Provisional” is another term for something that is temporary or likely to be changed in the future, but provisional does not imply that something is for a specific purpose, as ad hoc does—this is why many transition governments are called provisional. In philosophy the term ad hoc (or epicycle, in reference to an ad hoc element of the Ptolemaic model in early astronomy) is usually used as a criticism for an aspect of a theory that is added to correct a specific problem or gap in the theory, but which does not fit coherently into the theory as a whole.

A posteriori (ah pahst-ear-ee-or-ee) – a Latin term used to describe knowledge that is dependent upon experience, such as simple observation or an empirical observation, like a scientific study. The statement “cats are vertebrates” is an example of a posteriori knowledge because it is dependent upon observing what a cat is like. The philosophers who hold that we can only gain non-trivial knowledge through experience are known as empiricists. Also see entry on forms of knowledge here in section 2.5.1 of An Introduction to Logic and Critical Thinking.

A priori (ah pre-or-ee) – a Latin term used to describe knowledge which can be deduced from logic alone, independent of experience. The statement “all fathers have had children” is an example of a priori knowledge, since it can be determined through logical reasoning – you need not observe many fathers to know that they all have children since the predicate concept of “having children” is contained in the subject concept, i.e., it is definitionally true. The philosophers who hold that we can only trust a priori knowledge, i.e., knowledge gleaned through reason, independent of experience, are known as rationalists. Radical empiricists deny that a priori knowledge is a form of knowledge. Also see entry on forms of knowledge here in section 2.5.1 of An Introduction to Logic and Critical Thinking.

Alternative hypothesis — often abbreviated as H_a or H₁ — the hypothesis that there is statistical significance when looking for a type of effect or change in the status quo (see and compare with null hypothesis).

Amnesia — the loss of memory or inability to form memories. In retrograde amnesia memories stored before the amnesia event are lost; in anterograde amnesia there is a problem with encoding new memories after the amnesia event, however, long-term memories are preserved.

Analytic philosophy — definition coming soon.

Analytic psychology — definition coming soon.

Anthropocentrism (ann-throw-poe-cent-rizum) – is the view that humans are the most important animal species, and the only one deserving of serious moral concern. Anthropocentric individuals tend to see the world only from the human perspective, and see all other beings as resources to be used as humans see fit. Also known as human supremacy. Anthropocentric thought is largely the result of erroneous assumptions about metaphysics and biology and is reinforced by the misguided morality of ancient, but still active, religions. An example of this would be Genesis 1:26 in the Judeo-Christian Bible: “And God said, Let us make man in our image, after our likeness: and let them have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the fowl of the air, and over the cattle, and over all the earth, and over every creeping thing that creepeth upon the earth.”

Antinomy — a contradiction or paradox that exists between two reasonable views. Famously used by Immanuel Kant in the Antimonies section of his book The Critique of Pure Reason, that details contradictions in logic and epistemology. (See also: aporia, paradox.)

Apatheia – is a Stoic term for equanimity or psychological tranquility. This state of mind is reached when one no longer responds to emotions reflexively, but rather responds rationally.

Aponia — is the Epicurean term for the absence of physical suffering.

Aporia — a seemingly irresolvable puzzle, impasse, contradiction, or paradox.

Appeal to Nature Fallacy — definition coming soon.

Appraisal theory — a psychological theory which holds that our emotions stem from our appraisals of events—that is, how we evaluate events in terms of seeing it as good or bad, etc. For example, if we view an insult as a horrible dishonor we will have an extreme affective (emotional) reaction to it. If, on the other hand we view being insulted as just one of those things that happens (“No matter who you are, or what you do, there will be people who love you and people who hate you, and there will always be rude people”) then we will not become emotionally disturbed. Appraisal theory is a foundational concept in Stoicism, Rational Emotive Behavior Theory (REBT), and other forms of CBT.

Aretê (air-uh-tay) — excellence in general, or excellence in virtue.

Argument – see entry on arguments here in section 2 of An Introduction to Logic and Critical Thinking.

Argumentum a fortiori (argue-mentum ah fort ee or ee) – Latin for “argument to the stronger thing”. An a fortiori argument uses a strong proposition, or one which the arguer has confidence in, to argue for other, lesser propositions which are logically entailed by or implied by the stronger claim. An a fortiori argument can be used offensively to attack two or more claims by going after the main or strongest claim which logically entails the lesser claims. By defeating the strongest proposition the lesser propositions are also defeated since they are logically entailed by it. Example: The car has no gas, therefore we know a fortiori that we cannot drive it to the store. Let’s say in this example that the car also has a flat tire, but the strongest reason for thinking we cannot drive the car to the store is the fact that it has no gas; the flat tire might also preclude us from driving it to the store, but this is a weaker reason than the lack of gas, because it might be possible, albeit slow and difficult, to get to the store with a flat tire, but it is definitely not possible if the car won’t even start.

Ataraxia – also known as equanimity — is the Epicurean term for a state of mental or emotional calm even in the face of distressful situations; the absence of mental suffering: anxiety, depression, jealousy, ennui, terror, etc.

Autonoetic consciousness (auto = self; noetic = relating to the intellect or mental activity) — the ability to remember or imagine the self in the past, the future, and in counter-factual situations. Autonoetic consciousness requires episodic memory, or the remembering of past autobiographical events. Both concepts are closely tied to our concept of self.

Axiom – something which is taken to be obvious or self-evident, or well established enough to be regarded as such. The word axiom is used in logic to describe a starting point which is taken to be true.

Bare assertion fallacy (aka ipse dixit [pronounced ip-say dix-it] or ipse dixit fallacy [Latin = he said it himself]) — making an assertion without providing any evidence to back it up. The use of the term ipse dixit also implies a fallacious appeal to authority, as it was historically used to point out the fallacy of those who would appeal to the authority of well-known philosophers rather than using argumentation.

Bayesian probability — definition coming soon.

Bell curve — *** coming soon.

Catastrophizing — imagining the worst will happen in a situation, and often thinking about this negative outcome excessively (ruminating). For example, in hypochondriasis (illness anxiety disorder) a person may think some particular symptom they are feeling is a sign of a fatal disease. Another example would be a person believing that if they break up with their partner they will die alone and will never find anyone else. This isn’t to say worst case scenarios don’t happen, but only that they are much less likely than scenarios that are not the worst possible case imaginable. It is much more likely that negative outcomes are manageable and perhaps positive in the long run, or that things we think will be horrible aren’t really that bad or perhaps they are actually positive. Because catastrophizing imagines the worst case scenario when there are more likely possibilities, it is referred to as a cognitive distortion. The opposite type of cognitive distortion would be pollyannaism, that is, an unwarranted or unrealistic optimism.

Catecholamines — see: neurotransmitters.

Ceteris paribus — Latin for “all other things being equal”. Example: If I do not get another job, ceteris paribus, I won’t be able to pay the mortgage next month. That is, if all other things remain the same (equal), i.e., if I do not get a raise, or if the mortgage payment does not decrease, etc., then I will not be able to pay the mortgage without getting another job. Sometimes this phrase is used to to indicate laws that are not extremely rigid. For example, the laws of physics are held to be rigid in that nothing can alter them. In contrast to this are ceteris paribus laws in fields such as biology, psychology, sociology, economics, etc., which are usually true, under normal conditions, but they admit exceptions in atypical circumstances.

Cogito, ergo sum — René Descartes’ famous expression (in Latin) “I think (or doubt), therefore I am.”

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) — a form of psychotherapy (or psycho-social therapy) that focuses on correcting cognitive distortions—chiefly, illogical or erroneous beliefs, but also attitudinal patterns that stem from these beliefs. The philosophical foundations of CBT go back to Stoic philosopy founded in ancient Greece, and are captured well by the Stoic Epictetus’ statement that “We are not disturbed by what happens to us, but by our thoughts about what happens to us.” Essentially, CBT (and Stoicism) holds that our beliefs are the primary influence over our behavior and our emotions; if we can correct our erroneous, illogical, maladaptive or self-defeating beliefs we can make our behaviors and our emotional states more adaptive—that is, more conducive to good psycho-social health. The first form of CBT was Albert Ellis’ rational emotive behavioral therapy (REBT), followed by Aaron Beck’s cognitive therapy (CT)—both of these psychologists were influenced by stoic philosophy. Other forms of CBT: dialectical behavioral therapy (DBT), cognitive processing therapy, acceptance and commitment therapy, etc.

Consciousness – the ability to think and perceive through sensory experience. Sentience – the ability to experience pain and pleasure – is a corollary of conscious experience (exceptions to this statement would be some of the purely hypothetical types of consciousness outlined below).

Consequentialism – consequentialism or consequentialist ethics are moral theories that start by defining what is intrinsically good and then propose a way of maximizing what is good and minimizing its opposite – intrinsic bad or evil. In contrast to deontology, where the fulfillment of certain duties is considered moral obligatory, the only thing that matters in consequentialist theories are the consequences of actions – whether they succeed in maximizing intrinsic good and minimizing intrinsic bad. The quintessential example of consequentialism is classical utilitarianism, but there many different varieties of utilitarianism, and other varieties of consequentialism.

Contingent truth – see section 2.5.2 on types of truths here in An Introduction to Logic and Critical Thinking.

Contradistinction — distinguishing or drawing a distinction between two things by contrasting their differences.

Control (or control of variables) — in a scientific experiment variables (an entity, such as a characteristic, condition, or factor) that are potentially causative in a relationship must be manipulated or changed one at a time in order to determine what their actual role is in a relationship. For example, if we were conducting research on how sleep affects performance on cognitive function we would have to keep all other variables the same in our participants, except sleep duration (our hypothesized causative variable). In such a study we would be “controlling for” other possible causative variables that might influence the study (e.g., IQ, educational level, stress level, nutrition, etc.) by keeping them the same in our experimental group and control group. In order to control for these variables we would have to have a randomized sample so that both the experimental group and the control group are representative of the general population. In our study we would change the sleep duration in our experimental group—this changed variable is known as the independent variable—and leave sleep duration to be the same as the population average for the control group; the score on cognitive tests would be our dependent variable (or that which is affected by the independent variable). Such a research study is called a randomized controlled trial (RCT).

Critical thinking – is a disciplined method of thinking about issues that uses logic and reason in order to determine what is true, what can be known, or what to do in a given situation. Thinking critically entails being able to readily identify common biases and logical fallacies, the commitment to coming to conclusions based on careful examination of the available evidence, and a desire to seek out additional data when there is an inadequate amount of information available to come to a conclusion. Critical thinking can be seen as an attempt to approximate or adapt scientific methodology to our everyday lives, i.e., our actions, our decisions, and the forming of our opinions.

Cryptomnesia — when one believes they have generated a novel thought or idea, but it is actually a memory that was unconsciously stored. The person experiencing cryptomnesia does not realize that their thought / idea is actually a memory.

De facto — Latin term meaning “in fact”.

Déjà vu — the feeling that one has experienced the situation one is in at an earlier point in time. Possible causes: cryptomnesia; “glitches” in memory formation; dream experiences.

De jure — Latin term meaning “by law” or “by right”. Not to be confused with du jour, meaning served on this day, or “of the day.”

De novo — Latin term meaning “starting from the beginning, or from the same starting point/level.” In law it generally means “starting with a new trial,” or starting afresh or anew.

Deduction or deductive logic / reasoning — see https://philosophyaid.com/critical-thinking/

Delegative democracy — in a delegative democracy trusted delegates are elected to either pass on the decisions of their constituent body, or sometimes they are empowered to make certain decisions for the body. Delegative democracy differs from representative democracy in that a delegate’s primary role is to pass on the views or democratic decisions of their constituents. Also, delegates are usually instantly recallable (impeachable) if they fail to adequately represent their constituents.

Dependent variable (DV) (psychology) – The thing you are measuring in the experiment (measuring its response to the independent variable [IV]). Sometimes called the “responding variable”. The DV corresponds to the predicted effect, or the “then” part of the hypothesis. Example: Study hypothesis: If students study at least 1 hour a night (IV = study time), then they will receive higher test grades (DV = test) than those who did not study at night.

Deontology – the word deontology is built from the Greek prefix “deon,” meaning “duty”. Deontology or deontological ethics are based on adhering to moral duties, rather than on maximizing the good, as in consequentialist theories, or on emulating an ideal virtuous agent in virtue ethics. Kantianism and W.D. Ross’s prima facie duty ethics are examples of deontological ethical theories. (Note: Deontology is perhaps more appropriately referred to as non-consequentialism, since consequentialist theories are also based on duty, that is, the duty to maximize intrinsic good and minimize intrinsic bad.)

Distal or ultimate cause — the event or entity which is furthest away in the chain of causes that led to some event. In contrast to the distal or ultimate cause is the proximal or proximate cause — the event or entity which is considered to be the nearest (spatially or temporally) cause of some event. For example, if the proximate cause of someone’s death is a heart attack, we might say the distal cause was when they first developed ate and developed an affinity for fatty foods.

Dopamine — a catecholamine neurotransmitter that is linked to reward-motivated behavior in the brain. Outside of the brain, dopamine has numerous and diverse functions. Dopamine is synthesized from phenylalanine / tyrosine.

Ecological fallacy — a fallacy where a person makes assumptions about individuals based on findings about the group they belong to. The term “ecological” refers to the fact that this fallacy typically arises in studies that use aggregate data, which are often based on geographic areas or social units (such as states or countries). The ecological fallacy is fallacious because it assumes that characteristics observed at the group level are necessarily true for individuals within that group.

For example, suppose a study finds that people who live in a certain area with high rates of obesity are more likely to develop heart disease. It would be fallacious to assume that all individuals in that area are at high risk of heart disease, as individual factors such as age, genetics, lifestyle, and other health conditions could significantly affect an individual’s risk of heart disease.

See also: the fallacy of division.

Fallacy of division — an informal fallacy where one assumes that what is the case for the whole also applies to its parts. For example:

Premise: The university football team is the best in the country.
Conclusion: Therefore, every member of the university football team must be the best player in the country.

A historical example would be homoeomeria, a view held by the atomist philosopher Anaxagoras, which held that the atoms of a thing had the same properties — for example, water atoms would also be wet.

See also: the fallacy of composition, and emergence.

First philosophy — another term for metaphysics.

First-order ethical views – see entry on normative views here.

Folk wisdom — cliche cultural expressions of purported wisdom. In particular situations an instance of folk wisdom might be logical, and indeed wise, but in other situations that same expression of folk wisdom will be fallacious. The problem with folk wisdom is it is often touted as applying in all or in nearly all situations, rather than as pithy statements that apply to some situations. There are many examples, within any culture, of folk wisdom, and many of these examples contradict one another if they are taken as general rules (which they commonly are). For example, a person might say “absence makes the heart grow fonder” to a person wondering if they should leave their girlfriend to go on a summer vacation; in this case the person’s absence might make their girlfriend long for them even more, or it may make them lose interest or develop romantic interest in another person. Here we can see that the folk wisdom proverb “absence makes the heart grow fonder” is not a general rule.

GABA — gamma-aminobutyric acid or γ-Aminobutyric acid is an inhibitory neurotransmitter that causes relaxation or sedation. Tranquilizing (anxiety and psychosis reducing), sedating (physiologically and mentally slowing), and hypnotic (sleep inducing) drugs often work by activating GABA receptors or enhancing the action of GABA.

Ghrelin — an enteroendocrine hormone that increases gastric acid secretion, gastrointestinal motility, and is partly responsible for causing the sensation of hunger.

Glutamate — an excitatory neurotransmitter that causes stimulation.

Hanlon’s Law — “Never attribute to malice that which can be adequately explained by stupidity” — Robert J. Hanlon. This is statement is similar to Ockham’s razor, in that it expresses that stupidity or ignorance is a more parsimonious explanation than malevolence—given that the former are more common or likely in most situations.

Hard Problem of Consciousness — definition coming soon.

Harm principle – the principle that one’s liberty to do as they wish should only be infringed upon if their actions would harm another person. John Stuart Mill is commonly credited as the author of this principle. As he stated, “The only purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised over any member of a civilized community, against his will, is to prevent harm to others.” [Mill, John Stuart, and Gertrude Himmelfarb. On Liberty, 21 – 22. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1974.

Hedonism — definition coming soon.

Heuristic — definition coming soon.

Hitchen’s razor — “That which can be asserted without evidence can be dismissed without evidence.” – Christopher Hitchens

Hormone — hormones are chemical messengers that are produced by glands in the endocrine system and transported through the bloodstream to target cells and tissues. They play important roles in regulating various physiological processes in the body, including metabolism, growth and development, reproduction, and stress response.

There are many different types of hormones, each with their own unique functions and effects on the body. Some examples of hormones include:

Insulin: Produced by the pancreas, insulin is responsible for regulating blood sugar levels by promoting the uptake and storage of glucose in cells.
Estrogen and progesterone: These female sex hormones are produced by the ovaries and play important roles in regulating the menstrual cycle, promoting reproductive health, and maintaining bone density.
Testosterone: This male sex hormone is produced by the testes and plays important roles in regulating sexual development and function, as well as muscle mass and bone density.
Cortisol: Produced by the adrenal glands, cortisol is involved in the body’s response to stress and helps to regulate blood pressure, blood sugar levels, and immune function.
Thyroid hormones: Produced by the thyroid gland, thyroid hormones are involved in regulating metabolism, growth and development, and body temperature.

These are just some examples of the many different hormones that are produced by the endocrine system. Each hormone plays a unique role in maintaining homeostasis in the body and regulating various physiological processes.

Ideal utilitarianism — definition coming soon.

Incorrigible — a term used in epistemology to denote a belief that is considered true beyond doubt, such that the agent cannot discard the belief. Descartes cogito ergo sum is a classic example.

Independent variable (IV) (psychology) — The thing you are testing in the experiment. Sometimes called the “manipulated variable”. In other words, the IV is the thing that is different from the control group in a controlled experiment. KEY TO REMEMBERING: The IV corresponds to the predicted cause, or the “if” part of the hypothesis. Example: Study hypothesis: If students study at least 1 hour a night (IV = study time), then they will receive higher test grades (DV = test) than those who did not study at night. HELPFUL MNEMONIC: In a study on the effects of an intravenous drug the drug is the independent variable and they are both abbreviated IV.

Induction or inductive logic / reasoning — see https://philosophyaid.com/critical-thinking/

Innate knowledge — see entry on forms of knowledge here in section 2.5.1 of An Introduction to Logic and Critical Thinking.

In silico — in computer simulation or via computing.

Instrumental value (aka extrinsic value) — that which is valuable only as a means toward the intrinsically valuable.

Intrinsic value — that which is valuable in itself. For example, ethical hedonism holds that happiness alone is intrinsically valuable; Kantianism holds that only a good will (the will to do one’s moral duty—that is, the categorical imperative) has intrinsic value.

Internal validity — the degree to which a scientific study eliminates biases or methodological errors, so that its conclusions are warranted. In other words, how well the study determines the cause of the behavior, cognition, emotion, effect, etc. The hidden camera in the bathroom example (see external validity) would have low internal validity because we wouldn’t know what caused the individuals to wash their hands or not wash their hands. For example, we might ask if it was because there were other people in the restroom with them, or was it because they have a lot of knowledge about germs and disease transmission? These things (people in the room, knowledge of disease transmission) could be independent variables that we introduce and test in an experiment. Experiments with, for example, control groups, high sample randomization, standardized protocols/instructions, double blindness, would have a high degree of internal validity. But, when we put individuals in a study, and they know they are in a study, are external validity will go down. So, in many cases, external validity decreases as internal validity increases, and vice versa.

Intersubjectivity — a statement is said to be intersubjective if it is not definitionally true or objectively true, but most rational agents (adult persons of “sound mind”) agree that it is true. Essentially, intersubjectivity concerns subjective matters—such as the statement “having friends is good” (as opposed to objective statements, such as 2 +2 = 4)—that reach a near consensus level of agreement.

In vitro — in glass, or, more generally, in the lab/outside of the biological organism.

In vivo — in the (biological) body.

Ipse dixit (pronounced ip-say dix-it; Latin = he said it himself) or ipse dixit fallacy (aka bare assertion fallacy) — making an assertion without providing any evidence to back it up. The use of the term ipse dixit also implies a fallacious appeal to authority, as it was historically used to point out the fallacy of those who would appeal to the authority of well-known philosophers rather than using argumentation.

Ipso facto — Latin term meaning “by that fact”.

Is–ought problem — definition coming soon.

Jamais vu — the feeling of being unfamiliar with a person, situation or environment that should be familiar to the perceiver. Possible causes: psychedelic or psychoactive drug, epileptic seizures, etc.

Just in case – in logic, the phrase “just in case” means the same thing as ‘if and only if,” that is, it is a biconditional statement. See also: “precisely if”. See entry on necessary and sufficient conditions here in section 2.3 of An Introduction to Logic and Critical Thinking.

Just world fallacy (aka just world hypothesis) — the erroneous belief (or cognitive bias) that individuals are always, or are almost always, rewarded or punished for ethical or intelligent behavior; entailed in this view is the belief that bad things do not happen to good or intelligent people (e.g., if someone develops cancer they must have been doing something that was harmful to their health; if someone was assaulted by police officers they must have acted in such a way to warrant their use of violence), and usually the belief in a divine or cosmic force that doles out rewards or punishments accordingly. Numerous counterexamples attest to the unsoundness of this hypothesis—which it is why it is generally considered to be an informal fallacy or cognitive bias, if it is not sufficiently qualified in a particular context. In many social contexts it is plausible that ethical and rational behavior is generally rewarded through natural consequences and reciprocity, but this is not always the case, and in some contexts it is not even the norm. The just world fallacy is often seen in folk wisdom memes which claim that this sort of justice is a general law of the universe.

Kantianism – definition coming soon.

Leptin — definition coming soon.

Liberty principle (Rawls) — definition coming soon.

Low level (vs. high level) explanation — definition coming soon.

MAOI — MAOIs or monoamine oxidase inhibitors are a class of drugs that inhibit the action of monoamine oxidase enzymes that serve to break down monoamine neurotransmitters like serotonin, melatonin, and norepinephrine. MAOIs can cause serotonin syndrome when mixed with SSRIs or serotonin precursors which also boost the amount of serotonin in the synapse.

Mean (statistics; symbolized by an x with a bar over it) — the average of a data set. The mean is highly affected by extreme or outlier values—in these instances the median (see median [statistics]) is usually a better representation of reality (e.g., income in the US).

Means of production – is a term used to describe anything used to manufacture a product or provide a service. Large-scale means of production are basically the general infrastructure of a society – factories, hospitals, mines, refineries, etc. Small-scale means of production are personal tools, workshops, and machinery. Means of production are divided into two further categories: instruments of labor, i.e. factories, sophisticated and expensive tools, workplaces, etc.; and subjects of labor, i.e. natural resources and other raw materials.

Median (statistics) — the middle value when all values are arranged in order of least to greatest. If the middle falls between two values (in the case of an even number of values) take an average of the two sandwiching values. The median is usually a better representation of reality when extreme or outlier values are present in a data set (see mean [statistics]).

Mediating factors — factors or variables that serve as links in causal chain. For example, in the causal chain of “food consumption –> insulin secretion –> glucose uptake into cells” insulin secretion is a mediating factor that allows food consumption to have an effect on the body’s cells.

Memory — memory is broken up into different categories of cognitive processing. Sensory memory is a very brief memory of a sensory experience we have just had; declarative memory relates to factual information and knowledge and is separated into two distinctions: episodic memory (memory of the events we have experienced) and semantic memory (memory of facts and concepts). Non-declarative memory (aka procedural memory) is our knowledge of how to do things like ride a bike or have a conversation; we know how to do these things, but we may not be able to explain these things well—you can’t simply tell someone how to ride a bike because there it is too complicated to explain. Long-term memory refers to enduring memories that have been archived for repeated retrieval through our lifespan. Working memory refers to our store of long-term memory + our sensory memory—that is, we make sense of our sensory perceptions and memories through matching these experiences and information to those in our long term memory. Salient or important experiences in our sensory or working memory are archived into long-term memory.

Meta-ethics – the sub-branch of ethical philosophy that is concerned with what morality is in general. Some common meta-ethical questions are: Can moral statements can be true or false (e.g., is the statement “It is wrong to commit murder,” something that can be true or false, or is it just an expression of emotion?)? Are moral facts or properties out in the world or are they internal or mind-dependent? What motivates an agent to adhere to a moral principle—some internal motivation (they want to), or external motivations (laws prohibit breaking the principle, adhering to the principle is the best way to get what they desire, etc.). Sometimes meta-ethical views or questions are referred to as second-order, as in second-order questions.

Meta-philosophy — (philosophy of philosophy) the sub-branch of philosophy that defines philosophy itself, in terms of its methods, scope, and purpose.

Metaphilosophical naturalism — definition coming soon.

Metaphysical naturalism — definition coming soon.

Metaphysics — the branch of philosophy which investigates the fundamental nature of reality. Metaphysicians (philosophers who focus on metaphysics) endeavor to discover what exists and explain what those things are like. Aristotle referred to metaphysics as “first philosophy,” indicating that it dealt with this fundamentality – the general examination of what is and how it is. Metaphysics further divides into two sub-branches: ontology, which focuses on what exists and how to categorize those things; and metaphysical cosmology – the study of the fundamental nature of the universe.

Mode (statistics) — the value that occurs most frequently in a statistical analysis (if there is a tie a sample can have two mode values). If all values do not occur more than once it is said there is no mode.

Moderating factors — factors or variables that serve to moderate (increase or decrease) the effects of other factors / variables.

Moral principle — a moral principle is a statement which attempts to express why an action or type of action is right or wrong (i.e., conduct principles), or why a thing is good or bad (i.e., value principles). Moral principles are the instructive aspect of moral theories – their purpose is not only to indicate why something is right or wrong, good or bad – but also to provide a guide for our moral decisions and actions.

Moral standing (aka moral status or moral consideration) — an entity is said to have moral standing, or more specifically direct moral standing, under a certain moral theory if they—as individuals (contrast with indirect moral standing)—matter morally, such as if they have interests that should be taken into consideration. Indirect moral standing refers to the moral consideration given to an entity in terms of its connections to an entity with direct moral standing; for example, a work of art may have indirect moral standing in so far as it is valued by an individual with direct moral standing.

Moral theory — a moral theory attempts to describe what it is about actions that makes them right or wrong, and what it is about a person that makes them good or bad. Also, in a more practical sense, moral theory seeks to develop a procedure that will allow us to make good moral decisions. [Note: this definition is drawn from Moral Theory: An Introduction by moral philosopher Mark Timmons. The former sentence is what he refers to as the theoretical aim of moral theory; the latter is what he calls the practical aim.]

Multicausal — a term that describes a situation where a particular outcome or phenomenon can be attributed to multiple causes or factors. In other words, there are multiple independent causes that contribute to the occurrence of the outcome or phenomenon. For example, if X can be caused by Y independently, or Z independently, then it is a multicausal phenomenon.

Multidimensional is a term that refers to complex processes or systems that involve multiple causal factors and dimensions in a complex relationship.

Multifactorial refers to a situation where a particular outcome or phenomenon is influenced by multiple factors that are interrelated and dependent on each other. In other words, the factors that contribute to the occurrence of the outcome or phenomenon are not independent, but rather they interact with each other and collectively contribute to the outcome. For example, if X can be caused by Y and Z together, then it is a multifactorial phenomenon.

Multifinality — a term used to describe a phenomenon found in multidimensional processes or systems where the presence of a causal factor can result in multiple different outcomes.

Mutatis mutandis — Latin phrase meaning “the necessary changes having been made.” It is used when comparing somewhat dissimilar things in order to show how they are similar after the necessary changes have been made or considered.

Necessary truth – see section 2.5.2 on types of truths here in An Introduction to Logic and Critical Thinking.

Negative evidence — evidence in the form of failed predictions of a hypothesis. Specifically, when a hypothesis asserts there will be positive evidence and none exists, this is referred to as negative evidence against the hypothesis. For example, if a person claims that the Earth is flat, but no edge of the Earth is found, then this is said to be negative evidence against their hypothesis. Positive evidence of a spherical Earth would also undermine or refute their hypothesis.

Negative feedback – is a relationship of processes in a system which tends toward equilibrium. Put simply, some input stimulus causes output to be reduce or regulated. A good example is glucose regulation in animals: eating food causes glucose levels to rise in the blood; in response, beta cells in the pancreas secrete insulin, which turns glucose into glycogen that is stored in the liver for future use (this also prevents hyperglycemia which is harmful to cells, especially neurons). In the case where there is a lack of food intake, glucose levels dip, causing alpha cells in the pancreas to secrete glucagon, which turns glycogen into glucose.

Negative utilitarianism — see Utilitarianism.

Neocortex — definition coming soon.

Neuroleptic (etymology: neuro = neuron; leptic = to take hold of) — another name for antipsychotics, aka major tranquilizers.

Neurotransmitters — chemical messengers that are released by neurons (nerve cells) to transmit signals to other neurons, muscle cells, or gland cells. They are essential for the functioning of the nervous system, which is responsible for controlling and coordinating many physiological processes in the body.

There are several classes of neurotransmitters, which can be classified based on their chemical structure or their functional properties. Some of the main classes of neurotransmitters include:

Amino acids: This class of neurotransmitters includes glutamate, which is the primary excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain, and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), which is the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain.
Monoamines: This class of neurotransmitters includes dopamine, norepinephrine (noradrenaline), epinephrine (adrenaline), serotonin, histamine, and melatonin. Monoamines are derived from amino acids and play important roles in the regulation of various physiological and psychological processes, including mood, appetite, sleep, and movement.
Catecholamines are a class of neurotransmitters that are derived from the amino acids phenylalanine or tyrosine. Examples of catecholamines include dopamine, norepinephrine (noradrenaline), and epinephrine (adrenaline). Catecholamines are involved in a wide range of physiological and psychological processes, including mood regulation, attention and focus, motivation, movement, and the “fight, flight, or freeze” response to stress. The release and reuptake of catecholamines is tightly regulated by various enzymes and transporters in the brain and peripheral nervous system.
Acetylcholine: This neurotransmitter is synthesized from the amino acid choline and plays important roles in regulating muscle contraction, cognitive function, and memory.
Neuropeptides: This class of neurotransmitters includes endorphins, which are involved in pain relief and reward processing, and oxytocin, which is involved in social bonding and trust.
Purines: This class of neurotransmitters includes adenosine and ATP, which are involved in regulating energy metabolism and signaling between neurons.

There are also several other types of neurotransmitters, including gases (e.g. nitric oxide), lipids (e.g. endocannabinoids), and trace amines (e.g. tyramine). Each class of neurotransmitter plays a unique role in the functioning of the nervous system.

Non-central fallacy — definition coming soon.

Norepinephrine — a catecholamine neurotransmitter that causes arousal in the brain, and has complex functions elsewhere in the body.

Normative – a normative statement is a statement of what a person ought to do. In ethical philosophy a normative account or a normative theory is a theory of how one ought to live or how they ought to act. Sometimes normative theories are called first-order theories. Contrast this with meta-ethical views (aka second-order views).

Null hypothesis — often abbreviated as H₀ — the hypothesis that there is no statistical significance in a finding; that the proposed intervention has no desired effects; that the status quo maintains (see and compare with alternative hypothesis).

Objective list theories — definition coming soon.

Obscurantism — the practice of obscuring or hiding information. Obscurantism may be intentional or unintentional. Intentional obscurantism is practiced by individuals or groups that want to restrict access to information for some reason; this may be accomplished by directly preventing or prohibiting access to certain types of information, or by intentionally using esoteric terms and/or an abstruse or vague style of writing. Unintentional obscurantism occurs when individuals, who have no overt desire to restrict information from the general public, fail to express their ideas in a way that is accessible to most individuals.

Ockham’s razor — also known as the Law of Parsimony (I prefer Principle of Parsimony) or lex parsimoniae in Latin — says that the simplest explanation is usually the best. The use of the word “simplicity” here may be misleading; by “simplicity” we don’t mean illogical or absurd simplicity, such as saying, “It was just magic,” but rather a logical hypothesis which makes the fewest assumptions, or posits the fewest number of necessary entities or sub-hypotheses. Another way to think of simplicity, in this sense, is to think about what accords best with what we already know with a high degree of confidence, or what is most probable in a given situation. Ockham’s razor is not a hard rule of logic, but rather a general heuristic used in abductive reasoning (or inference to the best explanation, given an incomplete data set), which tends to arrive at accurate or veridical (corresponding with reality) conclusions more often than not. Hence, it can lend plausibility to an argument, or be useful in matters which require expedient decision making. Related to, or overlapping with Ockham’s razor is the folk heuristic known as the “duck test”: If something looks like a duck and quacks like a duck, it’s probably a duck.

Heuristics can be wrong though. For example, if I see a tree branch in the yard the morning after a storm, I might use Ockham’s razor to infer that the effects of the storm (wind, hail, or possibly lightning, etc.) caused the branch to fall. Most of the time people using this heuristic in this situation are going to be right, but it might be the case in a particular instance that the branch fell due to some other, less simple or likely cause, such as a raccoon or a raincoat clad peeping Tom putting too much weight on it. If one really wanted to stray from Ockham’s razor, they could hypothesize that the branch was knocked down by a drunk-driving extraterrestrial in a spaceship. These hypotheses which make more assumptions (or posit more entities or sub-hypotheses) might prove to be correct after further investigation, but, generally speaking, hypotheses which conform with Ockham’s razor are going to be right much more often than those that do not. So, it is always prudent to start your investigation with hypotheses that conform to Ockham’s razor. Also see entry on abductive reasoning here in section 2.5 of An Introduction to Logic and Critical Thinking.

Only if — in logic, the phrase A “only if” B means the same thing as “if A then B”. See entry on the difference between necessary conditions and sufficient conditions here in section 2.3 of An Introduction to Logic and Critical Thinking.

Original Position — definition coming soon.

Paradox vs. Contradiction – paradoxes point out contradictions in seemingly sound logic, this can be in order to suggest that there is a problem with the logic involved – see Zeno’s paradoxes, the surprise exam, Russell’s paradox. A paradox can also point out something which seems to be a contradiction, but which isn’t because the two things can occur simultaneously (for instance, paradoxical effects of drugs — CNS depression and elevated heart rate).

Plank of Carneades — a philosophical exercise that is used to explore the nature of identity and change over time. The thought experiment is stated roughly as follows: suppose that you have a plank of wood that you use as a walking stick. Over time, the plank becomes worn down and damaged, so you replace it with a new plank. You continue to use the new plank as your walking stick, but is it the same walking stick that you originally had?

On the one hand, you might say that the new plank is not the same walking stick that you originally had, since it is a different object that has been substituted for the original one. On the other hand, you might argue that the new plank is the same walking stick, since it serves the same function and is used for the same purpose as the original.

See also: the Ship of Theseus problem

Population validity — one aspect of external validity. Population validity refers to how well a scientific study represents a population. Population validity is achieved through randomization in randomized controlled trials (RCTs).

Positive feedback — a relationship of processes in a system that leads to increasing effects, and instability and/or change. Positive feedback is often referred to as a loop or a cycle, where one iteration of the cycle (iteration A), leads to another iteration (iteration B), which in turn increases the effects of iteration A, which increases the effects of iteration B, and so on until a change or instability occurs (C). These cycles are often referred to as vicious if the change is bad or negative, and virtuous if the change is good or positive. An illustrative example of a positive feedback loop is coagulation (blood clotting) in animals: tissue damage results in a chemical response that attracts platelets to the site of injury; this activation of platelets causes them to release more chemicals that further activate platelets. The psychological condition known as cardiac neurosis is another illustrative example. The sufferer fears heart problems causing them to fixate on their heart beat, pulse, or sensations around the chest or arms; this fixation leads to anxiety when the sufferer begins to feel they have detected an abnormality; in turn, anxiety causes the heart to beat faster and blood pressure to rise, giving further concern to the sufferer and causing high levels of stress that may become problematic.

Precommitment, also known as a Ulysses pact, is a technique used in psychotherapy to help people overcome impulsive or compulsive behaviors that they have difficulty controlling. The term comes from the Greek myth of Ulysses, who bound himself to the mast of his ship to avoid being tempted by the Sirens’ song.

In psychotherapy, a precommitment or Ulysses pact involves making a commitment in advance to avoid engaging in a specific behavior or to engage in a specific behavior, even when one is experiencing strong impulses or urges. The idea is to make it more difficult to engage in the unwanted behavior by removing or reducing access to the triggering stimuli or by creating barriers to acting on the impulse.

For example, a person who struggles with overeating might create a precommitment by removing all unhealthy snacks from their home and making a plan to only eat at certain times during the day. They might also enlist the help of a friend or family member to hold them accountable to their plan. These are known as commitment devices.

Another example might be a person struggling with addiction who creates a precommitment by avoiding places or situations where they are likely to be exposed to their addictive substance and making a plan to engage in healthy coping strategies when they feel the urge to use.

Predicate logic (aka first-order logic) —

Prima facie — Latin for “on its face”; essentially meaning at first glance—that is, what something appears as at first—which may, or may not, correspond with what that things is in actuality, after more thorough examination.

Prima facie duty ethics (aka Rossian intuitionism or the theory of prima facie duties) — the deontological moral theory developed by the philosopher William David Ross. Prima facie duty ethics holds that there are a plurality of conditional duties binding on moral agents, and that, through the use of our moral intuition, we may determine which prima facie (or conditional) duty is our all-things-considered—or actual duty—in a given situation.

Primitive — outside of the common usage meaning archaic, and as used in many philosophy contexts, something which is primitive – for instance, a primitive notion – is something that cannot be defined by reference to other defined things. So, something that is “primitive” is said to be like an axiom.

Principle of parsimony — see Ockham’s razor.

Proposition — in logic, a proposition is a state of affairs which is either true or false. For example, the fact that there was man named Socrates is a proposition – that most historians regard as true – which is linguistically expressed by the statement: “Socrates was a man.” See entry on arguments here in section 2 of An Introduction to Logic and Critical Thinking.

Propositional logic (aka sentential logic) — definition coming soon.

Pro tanto – Latin phrase meaning “To that extent” or “To such an extent.”

Proximal or proximate cause — the event or entity which is considered to be the nearest (spatially or temporally) cause of some event. In contrast to the proximal cause is the distal or ultimate cause — the event or entity which is furthest away in the chain of causes that led to some event. For example, if the proximate cause of someone’s death is a heart attack, we might say the distal cause was their affinity for fatty foods.

Proving too much (informal fallacy) — an informal fallacy where one’s conclusion is shown to entail a corollary (something which logically follows from a statement) conclusion that is absurd. For example, if one were to argue that killing is wrong in all cases, then killing an aggressor in self-defense, or in defense of others, is also wrong; in this case you could construct a counter-argument which holds that this argument “proves too much”—such a counter-argument would be a type of reductio ad absurdum.

Reason – is a term that is often defined in various ways. Sometimes a distinction is made between practical and theoretical reason, where the term “practical” denotes reasoning that is used to decide the right course of action, and the term “theoretical” denotes reasoning that aims at arriving at true conclusions. This degree of hair-splitting is unnecessary for most purposes. The term “reason”, as it is used here, generally means the application of logic, experience, and cognitive faculties in evaluating the veracity of information or get as close to truth as possible.

Reductio ad absurdum (aka argumentum ad absurdum) — the reductio ad absurdum strategy in philosophy is a technique of argumentation that aims to demonstrate the falsity or inconsistency of a proposition by showing that its logical consequences lead to absurd or contradictory conclusions.

In practice, reductio ad absurdum involves assuming the truth of a proposition or claim and then deducing consequences or implications that are clearly unreasonable, contradictory, or nonsensical. By demonstrating that accepting the initial proposition leads to absurd outcomes, the argument concludes that the proposition must be false or untenable.

This strategy relies on the principle of logical contradiction, which states that a proposition and its negation cannot both be true simultaneously. By highlighting the absurdity of the consequences that follow from accepting a proposition, reductio ad absurdum seeks to undermine the credibility or coherence of the initial claim.

The reductio ad absurdum strategy is commonly used in philosophical debates to challenge or refute certain arguments, theories, or positions. It serves as a powerful tool for exposing logical inconsistencies and demonstrating the implausibility or untenability of a particular viewpoint.

Overall, reductio ad absurdum is a method of reasoning that employs absurd or contradictory consequences to undermine and reject a proposition, aiming to provide evidence against its validity or coherence.

Representative democracy – is a system of government that entails a limited amount of democratic participation by the general citizenry. In this system “representatives” are elected to make decisions for their constituents. A common criticism of representative democracy is that these representatives are often more receptive to representing the moneyed interests that finance their campaigns or provide other kickbacks. A candidate that does not court these moneyed interests has very little chances of winning an election. Some socialists have used the term “bourgeois democracy” to describe representative democracy — a term which refers to the very limited democratic participation of the working class population, in contrast to the significant political power that the very wealthy, or bourgeoisie, have access to. In contrast, participatory democracy is a system where all people have the ability to participate in the democratic process.

Sagan’s standard — (ECREE) “Extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence.” — Carl Sagan

Sagan’s standard is considered a general axiom of science (and philosophy). It holds that the onus rests on those who make extraordinary claims—such as those that contradict the principle of parsimony or generally accepted views in the scientific body of knowledge—and that the burden of proof in these cases is, by definition, extraordinarily high.

Sample — in a psychological study, a sample refers to a group of participants who are selected from a larger population to participate in the study. The goal of selecting a sample is to obtain a representative group of people who are similar to the larger population on important characteristics such as age, gender, ethnicity, and other relevant factors.

The size and composition of the sample can have important implications for the generalizability of the findings to the larger population. A larger sample size generally increases the confidence that the findings are representative of the larger population. Additionally, it is important to use appropriate sampling methods to avoid bias and ensure that the sample is representative of the population of interest.

Psychologists use a variety of sampling methods, including random sampling, stratified sampling, and convenience sampling, depending on the research question and available resources.

Sampling bias — a situation where the participants selected for a study are not representative of the population from which they were drawn. Sampling bias occurs when there are flaws in the sampling procedure or when certain individuals are systematically excluded or underrepresented in the sample. Sampling bias can lead to inaccurate or misleading conclusions about the population of interest, and can affect the external validity of the study.

Examples of sampling biases:

Selection bias: Occurs when participants are not selected randomly or are self-selected, leading to an unrepresentative sample.
Volunteer bias: Occurs when individuals who volunteer to participate in a study differ systematically from those who do not volunteer, leading to an unrepresentative sample.
Non-response bias: Occurs when participants refuse to participate or are lost to follow-up, leading to an unrepresentative sample.

Satisfice — in moral philosophy, satisficing refers to a theory of moral decision-making that emphasizes achieving “good enough” outcomes rather than optimal or ideal outcomes. This theory suggests that individuals and societies should aim to achieve satisfactory outcomes that meet a certain threshold of acceptability rather than striving for perfection or maximizing outcomes.

Satisficing can be contrasted with the theory of maximizing, which suggests that individuals and societies should aim to achieve the best possible outcomes or to maximize certain values, such as happiness or well-being.

Proponents of satisficing argue that it is a more realistic and practical approach to moral decision-making, given the complexity and uncertainty of real-world situations. They also argue that satisficing can help avoid the negative consequences of maximizing, such as the potential for excessive ambition, obsession with achievement, and neglect of important values that are not easily quantifiable or measurable.

Critics of satisficing argue that it may be too permissive and may fail to adequately address important moral issues or to promote the greater good. They also argue that it may be difficult to define a clear threshold of acceptability and that satisficing may not provide clear guidance for moral decision-making in complex or controversial situations.

Ship of Theseus problem — a philosophical thought experiment, dating back to the ancient Greek philosophers, that raises the question of whether an object that has had all of its parts replaced remains the same object. It asks whether the identity of an object is based on its material composition or some other factor, such as its history or function. The thought experiment is stated roughly as follows: The Ship of Theseus is being stored in a museum but the boards that make it up are all rotting. To preserve the ship each board is removed piece by piece and replaced with a new one. After all the boards have been replaced is this ship still the Ship of Theseus? See also: the plank of Carneades.

SSRI — SSRIs or selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors are a class of medications often used for the treatment of depression and anxiety. SSRIs work by preventing the reuptake (or reabsorption) of serotonin into the neuron, thereby allowing it to work in the space between the synapses (the synaptic cleft) longer, and in theory enhancing the connections and action of the neurons.

SNRI — SNRIs or serotonin/norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors are a newer class of drugs often used for the treatment of depression of depression and anxiety. SNRIs work similarly to SSRIs, but also prevent the reuptake of norepinephrine.

Second-order views – see entry on meta-ethics here.

Secular – means not pertaining to religion; non-religious.

Semantic memory — is one of two types of explicit memory, the other being episodic memory. Semantic memory is our long-term memory that deals with general facts about the world. Semantic memory can be consciously recalled and includes concepts, facts, ideas, etc.

Sensitivity and Specificity (in tests/research) — Sensitivity = how likely a test is going to be triggered as positive when it should be (true positive cases). For example, in the example of a medical test, a highly sensitive test will correctly identify almost all sick people—that is, true positives—and very rarely will it identify sick people as healthy (false negatives).

The good thing about high sensitivity tests is that if it is negative it is almost always actually negative (true negative); the bad thing about high sensitivity tests is that many of them have low specificity, and this means there will be a lot of false positives as well. (Note: Sensitivity and specificity are usually in an inverse relationship, but not always; very good tests will have high sensitivity and high specificity.) Metal detector gates are often set to high sensitivity in an airport; these metal detectors are mainly there to detect large metal objects like guns, knives, and bombs, but even small metal objects like belt buckles may set them off. High sensitivity = lots of false positives, and very few false negatives (in the case of a medical test a false negative means sick people scored as healthy; in the case of a metal detector a false negative means someone getting through with a large metal object, like a gun). In fact, if a medical test has high sensitivity and is negative you can pretty much rule out that disease. In the airport security example, where high sensitivity is the norm, this would mean that belts and buttons and all kinds of little metal things will set off the metal detector (false positives), but there will be very few people with guns getting through (false negatives). If someone gets through a high sensitivity metal detector you can almost guarantee they don’t have a large metal object, like a gun, on them. Short version: high sensitivity = very few false negatives, lots of false positives.

Specificity = how likely a test is to correctly identify negative cases (true negatives). For example, a high specificity medical test for a disease will identify almost all healthy people as healthy (true negatives), and very rarely identify healthy people as sick (false positives). The bad thing about high specificity tests is that many of them have low sensitivity, so there will be a lot of false negatives. Short version: high specificity = very few false positives, lots of false negatives.

Sentiocentrism (aka sentience-based) – is the view that sentience is the most important criterion in regards to moral standing. Sentiocentric moral theories hold that all sentient beings should be regarded as having moral standing.

Serotonin — or 5-HT, a monoamine neurotransmitter derived from tryptophan / 5-HTP that is primarily found in the central nervous system and the gastrointestinal tract. It plays a variety of important roles in the human body, including: regulating mood (it may promote calmness and feelings of well-being), regulating appetite and digestion, regulating sleep, regulating pain, and hemostasis.

These are just some of the many roles that serotonin plays in the human body. Imbalances in serotonin levels have been linked to a variety of conditions, including depression, anxiety, and gastrointestinal disorders.

Simpliciter — not relatively, in the full sense of the word, without qualifications.

Soundness – see discussion of validity, soundness, and other basics of logic here in sections 2 – 2.1 of An Introduction to Logic and Critical Thinking.

Standard deviation — ***coming soon

Statement – in logic, a statement is said to linguistically express a proposition, that is, a state of affairs which is either true or false. For example, the fact that there was man named Socrates is a proposition – that most historians regard as true – which is linguistically expressed by the statement: “Socrates was a man.” See entry on arguments, and other basics of logic here in sections 2 – 2.1 of An Introduction to Logic and Critical Thinking.

Status quo bias — definition coming soon.

Stoicism — a philosophy that originated in ancient Greece and emphasizes personal ethics and the importance of virtue, rational self-control, and resilience in the face of adversity. The Stoics believed that individuals should focus on what they can control, rather than worrying about what is beyond their control. The philosophy teaches that individuals should strive for inner peace and tranquility by cultivating virtues such as wisdom, courage, justice, and self-discipline.

Strawman fallacy – see entry on strawman fallacy here in section 3 of An Introduction to Logic and Critical Thinking.

Supervenience – the term supervenience describes a sort of hierarchical relationship where a system’s lower levels give rise to and determine its higher levels. The image below is a great example [public domain image from Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supervenience].

The higher levels here are said to supervene on the lower levels.

Syllogism — an instance of a form of reasoning in which a conclusion is drawn (whether validly or not) from two given or assumed propositions (premises), each of which shares a term with the conclusion, and shares a common or middle term not present in the conclusion. For example: all dogs are animals; all animals have four legs; therefore all dogs have four legs (http://english.oxforddictionaries.com/syllogism, 2019).

Synthetic proposition – see entry on synthetic proposition here in section 3 of An Introduction to Logic and Critical Thinking.

Tautology – in logic, a tautology is a propositional formula that is true on every possible interpretation. Example 1: Either I will go to the store or I will go to the store (an obvious tautology). Example 2: Either the car is moving or it is not moving. If it is true the car is moving then it is false that it is not moving, but the proposition itself, “Either the car is moving or it is not moving,” is a true proposition. In rhetoric, a tautology is simply being redundant or repetitive in what you state.

Tetrapharmakos — or the “four-part remedy,” was a set of four maxims developed by the ancient Greek philosopher Epicurus as a guide to living a happy life.

The four-part remedy is as follows:

Don’t fear god: Epicurus believed that the gods, if they existed, were not interested in human affairs and did not interfere with our lives. Therefore, there was no reason to fear them or worry about pleasing them.
Don’t worry about death: Epicurus argued that death is nothing to us since when we die, we no longer exist. Therefore, there is no reason to fear death or worry about what happens after we die.
What is good is easy to get: Epicurus believed that we should focus on simple pleasures and avoid excess, as it is easier to achieve and maintain a state of contentment this way.
What is bad is easy to endure: Similarly, Epicurus argued that we should not fear pain or hardship, as they are usually temporary and can be endured with the right mindset.

The tetrapharmakos was intended to help people live a peaceful and contented life, free from fear and anxiety. By following these four principles, Epicurus believed that we could achieve a state of tranquility and happiness.

Therapeutic index (the related concept therapeutic window or therapeutic range refers to a range of doses that are therapeutic or safe) — is a quantified measure of how safe a drug is—determined by looking at how much of the agent causes therapeutic effects and how much causes toxicity. A high therapeutic index means the drug is very safe, while a low index means the drug is less safe (more likely to reach toxic levels in an organism). A narrow therapeutic range means that the drug is very toxic—that is, that there is not much difference between a therapeutic dose and a toxic dose. In contrast, a drug with a wide therapeutic index will have little potential for toxicity; some drugs, for example, can be dosed many times over what is required for a therapeutic effect and still not cause toxicity in the organism. Therapeutic drug monitoring (TDM) is used in treatment protocols that utilize drugs with a low therapeutic index (narrow therapeutic range).

Thought–terminating cliche — a specific type of cliche that is generally used to discourage critical thinking. Thought-terminating cliches are often used in an attempt to hold onto contradictory beliefs, or to avoid thinking about things which may be perceived as unpleasant or which might lead to unpleasant conclusions. Thought-terminating cliches are often expressions of folk wisdom. Examples: God works in mysterious ways. Don’t overthink it.

Trivial truth – see discussion of trivial truth here in section 2.5 of An Introduction to Logic and Critical Thinking.

Type I error — False positive, or ruling out the null hypothesis in error. “When the boy cried wolf, the village committed Type I and Type II errors, in that order’ remains the best hypothesis testing mnemonic.” — Patrick Collision

Type II error — False negative, or ruling out the alternative hypothesis in error. “When the boy cried wolf, the village committed Type I and Type II errors, in that order’ remains the best hypothesis testing mnemonic.” — Patrick Collision

Utilitarianism — Utilitarianism encompasses various forms, including classical utilitarianism, negative utilitarianism, preference utilitarianism, and rule utilitarianism. While classical utilitarianism focuses on maximizing overall happiness or pleasure and minimizing suffering or pain, other forms of utilitarianism introduce different considerations into the ethical framework.

Negative utilitarianism places primary emphasis on minimizing suffering or harm, and it holds that the ethical value of an action is determined by its ability to reduce or prevent suffering, rather than promoting happiness or pleasure. According to this perspective, the moral imperative is to prioritize the alleviation of pain, misery, or negative experiences for the greatest number of individuals. Negative utilitarianism often takes a more cautious approach, emphasizing the avoidance of harm rather than the pursuit of positive outcomes. This may involve making sacrifices or taking actions that prioritize reducing suffering, even if it comes at the expense of potential gains in happiness.

Preference utilitarianism, for instance, emphasizes the satisfaction of individual preferences or desires as the basis for determining moral actions. According to preference utilitarianism, the right course of action is the one that fulfills the most preferences or promotes the most overall preference satisfaction.

Rule utilitarianism, on the other hand, looks to general rules or principles rather than specific actions. It posits that moral rules should be formulated based on their ability to maximize overall happiness or well-being when followed consistently. Rule utilitarianism seeks to establish rules that, if universally adopted, would lead to the greatest overall utility.

While these forms of utilitarianism differ in their specific approaches and considerations, they all share the core idea that the moral worth of an action is determined by its consequences in terms of promoting overall utility, whether that be happiness, preference satisfaction, or other measures of well-being.

Validity – see discussion of validity, soundness, and other basics of logic here in sections 2 – 2.1 of An Introduction to Logic and Critical Thinking.

Zenoism — another term for Stoicism, in reference to Stoicism’s founder, Zeno of Citium.

Zeno’s paradoxes — philosophical paradoxes (mostly relating to metaphysics) popularized by Zeno of Elea.

Z-score — ***coming soon